0 years, age range = 8.2–15.6 years). Controls were originally recruited through community and hospital postings or were biological children of a participating adoptive or foster parent. None had a documented history of prenatal exposure to alcohol or other teratogenic substances, a learning disability, or other neurological or psychiatric condition. Demographics Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Parents or caregivers completed a child history form that included comprehensive information of the child’s prenatal, birth, developmental, and familial history. Socioeconomic

status (SES) was computed using the Hollingshead Four-Factor Index (Hollingshead 1975) based on the education and occupation of biological or foster parents. All participants were assessed for intelligence with the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI; Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Wechsler 1999), which provides a full-scale IQ score. Image acquisition and processing High-resolution T1-weighted MRI scans were obtained in the axial plane (repetition time = 10.06 msec, echo time = 4.2 msec, inversion time = 400 msec, flip angle = 20°, field of view = 180 mm, acquisition matrix = 256 × 192,

slice thickness = 1.5 mm) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical using a 1.5 Tesla GE signal excite scanner (selleck chemicals General Electric Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI). All scans were processed using the automated CIVET pipeline (version 1.1.10; Montreal Neurological Institute at McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada). First, they were registered to the symmetric ICBM 152 template (Collins et al. 1994) and then corrected for radiofrequency inhomogeneity (Sled et al. 1998). Next,

skulls were stripped from the brain tissue (Smith Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2002), which was then classified into grey matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical components (Zijdenbos et al. 2002; Tohka et al. 2004). Deformable models were used to construct the inner white matter surface and grey matter–CSF interface or pial surface in both hemispheres (Kim et al. 2005). These yielded four surfaces of 40,962 vertex points per surface. CT was measured from each vertex point on the white matter surface to the corresponding pial-surface point (Lerch and Evans 2005). CT data were blurred with a 20-mm surface-based diffusion-blurring kernel (Chung and Taylor 2004) and nonlinearly aligned using surface-based registration (Lyttelton et al. 2007). SA however was computed at each vertex point of the pial surface by estimating the two dimensional area of a triangle formed by three vertices on the surface mesh and attributing a third of this area to each of the three vertices (Lyttelton et al. 2009). In addition to the vertex-wise analysis, each cortical hemisphere was segmented into sub-regions using the ANIMAL algorithm (Collins et al. 1995). From these data, measures of total cortical grey matter volume, total SA, and average CT were derived for each of the four hemispheric lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital), thus eight in total.

This “hurdle” rate of 159 doses per 1000 population was previously defined as the number of doses required to vaccinate those aged 65 years or older in more developed nations

[8], and was again utilized to enable comparisons with previous reports. inhibitors countries with the greatest proportional increases in per capita dose distribution between 2008 and 2011 were compared to those countries with the greatest proportional decreases for the same period. KPT-330 This excludes 2009 and 2010 data due to the H1N1 influenza pandemic vaccine distribution. To compare a similar number of countries with increases and decreases in dose distribution, 18 countries with the greatest rate of change were compared. Countries with the greatest proportional increase were selected according selleck kinase inhibitor to the hurdle rate: 9 countries below and 9 countries above the hurdle rate in 2008. Countries with the greatest proportional decrease were selected in the same way. The total numbers of IFPMA IVS doses of seasonal influenza vaccine distributed has risen from approximately 262 million in 2004 to about 489 million in 2011, an 87% increase. The breakdown in annual change is shown by WHO region in Fig. 1. The greatest rate of growth was seen in SEARO but the numbers

of doses distributed remain small for the region: 8.2 million in 2011. The lowest number of doses in 2011 was distributed to AFRO (approximately 3.8 million), and the greatest number was distributed in AMRO (255.6 million doses). EURO had the lowest rate of growth of all regions with a 29% decrease between 2008 (which was a peak year at approximately 144.2 million doses distributed) and 2011 (102.8 million doses distributed), for an overall growth of 14% between 2004 and 2011. Accounting for variations in country size, the data were rendered comparable by calculating the ratio of IFPMA IVS doses distributed per 1000 population,

as shown in, for 2008 and 2011. Data for AFRO, SEARO and EMRO are shown combined because they only account for 3.7% of the more than 489 million doses distributed in 2011. AFRO accounts for less than 1% of doses distributed (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate (about 0.77% in 2011). In AMRO (Fig. 2), 21 out of 33 countries (64%) in the region increased the per capita dose distribution between 2008 and 2011 and was significantly different in 2011 (p = 0.008). Doses distributed per 1000 population ranged from a high in the US of 476.6 in 2011 to a low of 0.69 in Haiti. In EURO (Fig. 3), the highest per capita distribution in 2011 was observed in the UK and the Netherlands at 269.5 doses per 1000 population each. However, a significant number of countries have considerably reduced utilization rates since 2008. This change was significant (p = 0.002) between 2008 and 2011.

The primary goal of ADNI has been to test whether serial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), PET, and other biological markers are useful for tracking the progression of MCI and early AD. Determination of sensitive and specific markers of very early AD progression is intended to aid researchers and clinicians to develop new treatments and monitor their effectiveness, as well as lessen the time and cost of clinical trials. The principal investigator of this initiative is Michael W. Weiner, MD, VA Medical Center and University of California,

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical San Francisco. ADNI is the result of efforts of many coinvestigators from a broad range of academic institutions and private corporations, and subjects have been recruited from over 50 sites across the United States and Canada. The initial goal of ADNI was to recruit 800 adults, aged 55–90, to participate in the research—approximately 200 cognitively normal older individuals to be followed for 3 years, 400 people with MCI to be followed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for 3 years, and 200 people with early AD to be followed for 2 years. For up-to-date information, see http://www.adni-info.org. selleck chemicals llc participants in ADNI are assigned to a diagnostic category (cognitively normal control Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or NC, MCI, or AD) based on clinical evaluation. NC participants must have mini-mental state exam

(MMSE) score >23, Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) score of 0, and no exclusions or conflicting diagnoses (depression, MCI, or dementia). MCI participants must have MMSE >23, CDR = 0.5, subjective

memory complaints, absence of significant impairment in nonmemory cognition or activities of daily living, and objective memory loss based on education-adjusted scores on the Wechsler Memory Scale Logical Memory II. AD participants must have MMSE score >19 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and <27, CDR score of 0.5 or 1.0, and must meet NINCDS/ADRDA criteria for probable AD (McKhann et al. 1984). Of note, these criteria do not make use of MRI or PET brain imaging. The data collection procedures were approved by the institutional Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical review board at each of the ADNI sites and all participants provided informed consent. Anonymized data from 254 ADNI participants were acquired for this study and were classified as follows: NC (n = 79), MCI (n = 121), AD (n = 59) (see Table 1). Using subsequent determinations of conversion to AD, members of the MCI group were divided into a group of participants who converted during 2 years of follow-up (MCI-c, n = 39) and a group of participants who were followed for Electron transport chain at least 2 years without converting (MCI-n, n = 70). The remaining 12 PET scans were excluded from further analysis due to lack of sufficient follow-up data. The final dataset comprised 242 PET scans. Table 1 Demographics of ADNI subjects (n = 242) ADNI PET scans Preprocessed baseline PET scans acquired with GE (Fairfield, CT), Siemens (Munich, Germany), and Philips (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) PET scanners were downloaded in ANALYZE format from the ADNI website.

Anatomic location may be helpful in differential diagnosis. Intramural leiomyomas most commonly locate in the esophagus and are rare in the stomach and small intestine (126). Morphologically, leiomyomas have brightly eosinophilic cytoplasm with distinct cell borders whereas GISTs

usually reveal syncytial cell morphology. Immunohistochemically, GISTs and leiomyomas share some markers, such as SMA and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical h-caldesmon, but spindle cell GISTs are rarely positive for desmin which is more specific for leiomyomas. Rare epithelioid GISTs that lack KIT expression do stain positive for desmin (116). Leiomyomas are negative for CD117. Although gastric schwannomas are not commonly seen, they can be morphologically very similar to certain spindle cell GISTs. Distinct peripheral Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cuffing of lymphocytes and strong reactivity with S-100 and GFAP readily differentiate them from GIST in addition to the negativities of CD117 and CD34 (127). Mesenteric fibrous lesions can be very challenging in terms of diagnosis of itself and confusion with GIST due to the location and gross appearance. Microscopically, intraabdominal desmoid fibromatosis Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical usually display long sweeping fascicles of spindle cells embedded within a collagen matrix with an infiltrating patter at peripheral of the tumor. Immunohistochemical stain of beta-catenin is positive in about 75% of cases (128-130).

Inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors are commonly seen in pediatric or young adult patients and recognized as a mesenteric mass. Microscopically, this Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical tumor has cellular fascicular fibroblastic/myofibroblastic proliferation with a prominent mixed inflammatory components including significant number of plasma cells. About 50% of tumors express ALK-1 (131), which is essentially negative in GIST. Inflammatory fibroid polyp is a polypoid lesion of mucosa with collagenous or Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical myxoid stroma admixed with fibroblasts. It can be CD34 positive but should be negative for CD117 and DOG1 (113,114,132). Interestingly, same PDGFRA mutations

as seen in GISTs are also discovered in inflammatory fibroid polyps (133). Histologically, epithelioid Isotretinoin GISTs need to be distinguished from other epithelial or epithelioid tumors including carcinoma, melanoma, glomus tumor, germ cell tumor and clear cell sarcoma. Immunohistochemical studies play a major rule on the differential diagnosis and the evaluation of appropriate immunophenotypic markers in context with morphology in most cases allows an accurate classification (Table 1). Table 1 Immunophenotypic features of gastrointestinal mesenchymal tumors Role of molecular analysis Mutational analysis of the KIT gene including exons 11, 9, 13, and 17, and PDGFRA gene including exons 12, 14, and 18 can be helpful in confirming the diagnosis of GISTs if immunohistochemical studies fail to support the diagnosis (particularly in CD117/DOG1-negative spindle cell learn more suspect cases).

However, flux constraints are excluded from the input data which can allow for a zero flux solution to be obtained even in non-equilibrium conditions. Since fluxes are not explicitly expressed as model elements, constraining parameters using those software is still not straightforward. Dynamic flux estimation shows that by verifying mass conservation in metabolic time-series data and integrating fluxes in the estimation of kinetic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical parameters values, the redundancy in model parameters can be reduced [25]. GRaPe uses a genetic

algorithm to estimate kinetic parameters using flux values to constrain kinetic parameters. Figure 1 illustrates the process undertaken to reconstruct our kinetic model of M. tuberculosis. Other data sets can also be introduced into the parameter estimation process for constraining purposes, however the availability of comprehensive datasets Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical on a large-scale is often lacking. Figure 1 Schematic overview of the model development process. 2.3. Parameter Variability Analysis (PVA) One of the issues relating to parameter estimation is that of mathematical redundancy. The redundancy results in multiple

sets of parameter values that can fit equally well to an experimental data set. A simple example Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of redundancy is when two parameters, a and b, are part of an equation in the form of a + b or a * b; if only their sum or product is known it is impossible to identify the value of a and b individually; if both the sum and product are known, then the value of a and b can be calculated.

This example illustrates that the level of redundancy is dependent on the amount of experimental Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical data used to constrain the estimation. When there is redundancy, the parameter values found in several runs of the estimation algorithm are likely to be different. In this article, we analysed the redundancy or ‘sloppiness’ Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in parameter estimation using parameter variability analysis (PVA). PVA allowed us to measure the range of changes in a set of parameter values when the estimation is MK1775 repeated multiple times. Once a model has been constructed or uploaded in GRaPe, PVA can be performed using the same data required to estimate parameter values for the model. PD184352 (CI-1040) The PVA algorithm works by repeating the estimation of kinetic parameters for the model multiple times using a genetic algorithm (GA). The GA works by populating a set of random initial parameter values; this is why results may differ after each run of the algorithm when there is redundancy. These estimated values are then optimised in an iterative manner until the maximum number of iterations is reached or a suitable solution is found. In GRaPe, GA uses flux and metabolic data to constrain parameters as illustrated in Figure 1.

Additionally, efforts are made to ensure that the voting membership is balanced

according to geography, race and ethnicity, sex, disability and expertise. Members are appointed to overlapping terms of 4 years (i.e., each member serves a 4-year term, such that in any given year approximately 1/3 of the Modulators committee turns over Alisertib datasheet and new members are appointed for 4-year terms). The chair is appointed for a 3-year term from among members who have had at least 1 year’s experience as a voting member. Eight non-voting ex officio members represent other federal agencies. They can participate in discussions and, in the event that fewer than eight voting committee members are present and eligible to vote, may be designated temporarily as voting members. There are also 26 non-voting liaison members representing organizations with broad responsibility for administration of vaccines to various segments of the population, operation of immunization programs and vaccine development. Although they do not vote on policy recommendations, these representatives bring the perspective of vaccine program implementation, and thus provide important insights into the daily administration of immunization programs. They are required to bring the perspective of their organizations to the ACIP and to disseminate ACIP’s recommendations back to their membership. No payment is given to non-voting members, although travel

expenses are covered. Voting members, who are deemed to be Special Government Employees during their tenure on the committee, receive an honorarium of a maximum of US$250 per meeting MDV3100 day (usually 6 days per year), plus reimbursement of travel expenses. Candidates for membership undergo careful screening for potential conflicts of interest before their names are submitted for final consideration. Stringent measures are taken not only to assure technical compliance with ethics statutes and regulations regarding financial conflicts but also to address more general concerns regarding any potential appearance of

conflict of interest. Screening is rigorous, and balances the possibility of bias caused by a conflict with the need for vaccine and immunization expertise. People with specific vaccine-related interests at the time of application are not considered for appointment Bumetanide by the committee. Examples of such interests include direct employment of the candidate or an immediate family member by a vaccine manufacturer or someone holding a patent on a vaccine or related product. In addition, before their names are submitted for final consideration, potential members are asked to resign for their term of membership from any activities that are, or could be construed as, conflicts of interest. These activities include provision of advisory or consulting services to a vaccine manufacturer or acceptance of honoraria or travel reimbursement from a vaccine manufacturer.

All subjects were also tested on a number of other behavioral tasks; however, the active and sham SD groups showed equivalent performance. This suggested that the effects of rTMS were specific to the DMS task. Two cortical EGFR inhibitor regions distinguished the active and sham SD groups. The sham group had greater fMRI activation in the right parahippocampal gyrus, while the active group had greater activation in a cortical region directly beneath where the coil had been placed in the TMS sessions. The results of the last step Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical indicated that multiple sessions of rTMS applied concurrently with

DMS task performance over the course of SD worked to generate sufficient neuroplasticity and subsequent Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neural changes in the distributed circuitry involved in processing the DMS task. This enabled superior cognitive working memory performance in subjects who received active rTMS a day after the last rTMS session, presumably long after the acute action of rTMS wore off at the local site of stimulation. As such, we suggest that fMRI-guided rTMS increased the resilience of neural circuitry specifically involved in WM to prevent the full impact of SD. The TMS paradigm used here may be a useful tool to help remediate specific cognitive deficits by strengthening networks vital to particular processing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical but weakened by the effects of age. Magnetic seizure therapy At

subconvulsive levels, TMS has been found Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to have modest antidepressant effects, particularly in elderlypopulations. One way to overcome this limitation would be through increasing its dosage into the convulsive range, given the superior antidepressant potency of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). While ECTis unparalleled in efficacy even in elderly populations, its risk of amnesia remains a limiting factor, particularly in elderly populations. The rationale behind magnetic seizure therapy (MST) is to preserve the efficacy of ECT while reducing its risk of amnesia through enhanced locality offered by

magnetic stimulation.84,85 When using subconvulsive TMS, the accidental Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical induction of a seizure would be deemed an adverse effect, but under controlled conditions in a patient under anesthesia, the resultant seizure could confer robust antidepressant properties as new seen with ECT. The conceptualization of MST was based on combining the unique characteristics of TMS and ECT,86,87 that is, the use of magnetic pulses that can pass unimpeded through the scalp and skull of the former, to generate tonic-clonic seizure activity with known antidepressant activity of the latter. Moreover, TMS has been found to have neurocognitive advantages in that it has no known cognitive adverse effects when used to treat MDD,88 has been shown to enhance cognitive abilities,89 and has been found to be beneficial for neurorehabilitative paradigms.

While further investigations are necessary to evaluate the mucosal immunity and the ultimate inhibitors protective efficacy of Ad5.MERS-S and Ad5.MERS-S1 in dromedary camels or the proper animal models, our results demonstrate that recombinant adenoviruses encoding MERS-S antigens may be protective vaccine candidates with a safe profile. Moreover, we have also investigated in the present study the infectivity of adenovirus type 5 of dromedary camel cells and the presence of anti-adenovirus type 5 neutralizing antibodies in a limited

compound screening assay set of dromedary camel sera. Altogether, the presented studies support further exploration of Ad5.MERS vaccines to target the animal reservoir, reducing the risk of human exposure to MERS-CoV. This project utilized the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute Vector Core Facilities supported by the University of Pittsburgh’s National Institutes of Health Cancer Center KPT-330 chemical structure Support Grant, award P30 CA047904. A.D.M.E.O., V.S.R., and B.L.H. are inventors on a patent application related to this work. “
“Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) causes serious production losses and has an enormous impact on trade. It is costly and difficult to control because of the diversity of the viruses involved, the multiple host species affected (both domestic and over 30 wildlife animal species) and the speed

and different routes of transmission. It is caused by FMD virus (FMDV), a small non-enveloped RNA virus belonging to the genus Aphthovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The virus exists as seven immunologically distinct serotypes: O, A, C, Asia 1, Southern African Territory (SAT)-1, SAT-2 and SAT-3. Each serotype has a spectrum of antigenically distinct subtypes due to a high mutation rate [1]. The viral genome is about 8.3 kb long and enclosed in Dipeptidyl peptidase a protein capsid. The capsid comprises 60 copies each of the four structural proteins (VP1-VP4); the VP1-3

proteins are located on the surface, while VP4 is internal. All FMDV serotypes produce a clinically indistinguishable disease but immunity to one serotype does not confer protection against another due to the antigenic diversity. The role of humoral antibodies as the principal component of FMD vaccine-induced protection is well established [2]. Traditionally, monoclonal antibody (mAb) resistant (mar) mutant studies and sequencing of their capsids have been used to identify critical amino acid (aa) residues for neutralisation [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] and [8]. There are four known neutralising antigenic sites located on the three exposed capsid proteins of serotype A. Site 1 (G-H loop of VP1) is linear and trypsin-sensitive, whereas other sites are conformational and trypsin-resistant [5]. Crystallographic studies have identified that most neutralising epitopes have been found on surface oriented interconnecting loops between structural elements [9].

5 Measuring creativity Given the foregoing definition, we then have to figure out the optimal procedures for assessing creativity It turns out that the options are, if anything, too numerous.6-7,15 Many Epigenetics Compound Library researchers attempt to measure the processes presumed to be responsible for the generation of creative ideas, such as divergent thinking (DT)16-17 and remote associations (RAT).18 Other researchers concentrate on assessments of the creative person, most often via some

personality measure, such as the Creative Personality Scale (CPS) of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the Gough Adjective Check List.19 In addition, because individual differences in creativity strongly correlate with both the openness to experience Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical factor in the Five -Factor Model20-21 and the psychoticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory,22-23 these latter measures can be used as indirect predictors.24 Taking a different tack, other investigators will focus on the creative product, often using the Consensual

Assessment Technique (CAT).25 Although distinct, these three approaches do share some conceptual overlap. For example, scores on the CPS correlate positively with divergent thinking.26 And both openness to experience and psychoticism correlate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical positively with defocused attention or reduced latent inhibition, which has been identified as an important process in creative thought.23,27-30 Moreover, the creativity of persons can be gauged by the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical number of creative products or actions they have generated, identified through either self-reports or bibliographic sources.26,31 Because creative productivity is strongly associated with achieved eminence, some researchers will use expert evaluations or conspicuous awards as indicators of creativity.32-34 Such historiometric measures have been shown to have some highly desirable features, including high reliability and face validity.35-37 Implicit

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the above inventory of measures is a subtle shift in the magnitude of the creativity assessed. At the lower level is everyday, psychological, or “little-c” creativity, whereas at the higher level is eminent, historical, or “Big-C” Creativity.11,38 On the one hand, lower-level creativity is most often gauged using a process measure, such as the unusual uses test,16 or an everyday product measure, such as the else CAT.25 On the other hand, higher-level creativity is most often measured using an eminence or productivity indicator.35-36,39 Another important difference is that little-c creativity is usually assessed using generic instruments that are assumed to be applicable to any domain (eg, the RAT), whereas Big-C Creativity is most often quantified via measures that are inherently domain-specific. Thus, the creative output of a scientist might be recorded by domain-specific publications and citations as well as award recognition.

2.2.2. Protein-Targeted Liposomes Qi et al. described a novel antineoplastic liposomal agent, liposomal saposin C [132]. Development of this agent is based on the observation that patients suffering from lysosomal storage diseases frequently have saposin C deficiencies leading to accumulation of toxic glycosylceramide sphingolipids [133] and that saposin Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical C inserts into negatively charged membranes at acidic pH [134]. They prepared a saposin C-DOPS conjugate which assembled as 190nm liposomes under sonication at acidic pH. Tumor targeting is based on activation of membrane fusion

domains of saposin C at the acidic pH in tumors leading to its internalization and glycosylceramide-induced apoptosis. Intravenous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical injection into neuroblastoma xenograft- bearing mice led to apoptosis induction in tumors and tumor growth inhibition without systemic toxicity. BAFF (B cell activating factor) is a cytokine whose receptor is overexpressed in B-cell lymphomas, conjugation of a BAFF mutant to vincristine-loaded PEGylated liposomes increased the survival of lymphoma-bearing mice over untargeted vincristine-loaded liposomes or free drug [35]. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Cancer cells overexpress transferrin receptors [135] making the glycoprotein, transferrin or antibodies to transferrin receptor, suitable ligands for tumor targeting [136]. Addition of transferrin to the surface of PEGylated oxaliplatin-loaded

liposomes increased tumor accumulation over free oxaliplatin or untargeted liposomes leading to the highest tumor growth inhibition against C26 colon carcinoma-bearing mice [36]. In parallel to these studies, conjugation of transferrin to doxorubicin-loaded liposomes resulted in higher doxorubicin delivery to tumors and tumor growth inhibition over untargeted doxorubicin-loaded Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical liposomes [103]. 2.2.3. Peptide-Targeted Liposomes More and more tumor-specific ligands are being identified by combinatorial screening of bacteriophage-borne peptide libraries, phage display biopanning. This is a strategy whereby

the recombinant SAR405838 in vitro virions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical able to bind cancer cells in vitro or tumors in vivo are purified before identification of the peptide and its use for many targeted drug delivery, allowing identification of peptides specific for cancer cells, tumor vasculature or both (reviewed in [137]). We previously described the selective exposure of nucleohistones by cancer cells effective cancer therapy of antinuclear-targeted doxorubicin-loaded liposomes [32]. In good agreement with these studies, Wang et al. reported tumor targeting of doxorubicin-loaded liposomes harboring the histone H1-specific peptide ApoPep-1 [138]. This peptide is selectively presented at the surface of tumor cells due to spontaneous apoptosis in avascular tumors. ApoPep-1 conjugation to doxorubicin-loaded liposomes led to superior doxorubicin distribution in lung xenografts and better tumor growth inhibition over untargeted liposomes.