Along this salinity gradient, the basin of the Gulf of Riga has one of the lowest macrovegetation species diversities. The Gulf of Riga has a surface area of 17913 km2, a volume of 406 km3, a maximum depth of 52 m and an average depth of 23 m. The average salinity in the gulf is 5.6. Outside the straits, the currents in the practically tideless Daporinad cost Estonian coastal sea are meteorologically driven and generally neither persistent nor strong (Suursaar et al.

2012). Because of the semienclosed configuration of the study area and the presence of some shallow bays exposed to the direction of the strongest expected storm winds, the sea level variability range is up to 4 m in Pärnu Bay and about 3 m elsewhere in the gulf (Jaagus & Suursaar 2013). As a result of the small area of the gulf (140 × 150 km2), significant wave heights (Hs) may reach

4 m when a storm wind blows from the direction of the longest fetch for a particular location (Suursaar et al. 2012). Long, relatively calm periods are interspersed with occasional wind and wave storms without a noteworthy swell-component. In general, the swash climate associated with low-energy dissipative beaches (with wide surf zones and flat beach profiles) supports an abundant coastal life (Lastra et al. Dabrafenib supplier 2006). As the beach type changes towards reflective conditions with short surf zones, coarse bottom substrates and steep slopes, the increasingly inhospitable swash climate gradually excludes sensitive species. The specific study locations at Kõiguste (58°22′N, 22°59′E), Sõmeri (58°21′N, 23°44′E) and Orajõe (57°57′N, 24°23′E; Figure 1) are predominantly low-energy beaches with low-lying hypsometric curves. The bottom substrate varies between sandy and morainic (Martin 1999). According to earlier studies, the three areas showed slightly different patterns of phytobenthic communities. While the Kõiguste area was characterised by high coverage and biomass, the other areas had a lower coverage and biomass of benthic vegetation (Martin 2000). According to previous studies, the most frequent

species were filamentous algae such as Ceramium tenuicorne (Kützing) Waern, Polysiphonia fucoides (Hudson) Greville, Pilayella Cobimetinib research buy littoralis (Linnaeus) Kjellman and Battersia arctica (Harvey) Draisma, Prud’homme & H. Kawai in the Gulf of Riga ( Martin 1999). Recently, the filamentous red alga P. fucoides occurred most frequently and with high coverage in all the areas studied ( Kersen 2012). Sampling of the seabed phytobenthic community was carried out in three areas (Kõiguste, Sõmeri and Orajõe) in the northern Gulf of Riga (Figure 1) in May, July and September 2011. In each area, macrophyta were observed along three parallel transects placed perpendicularly to the shoreline with a distance of 500 m between the transects. The length of the transect was 2–4 km depending on the area. The depth intervals of the sampling sites along the transects were 1–1.5 m.

, 2011). Variations in serum levels of collectins have been implicated in various immunity disorders. Functional mannose-binding lectin (MBL) deficiency, caused by single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding region of the MBL2 gene, has been associated with increased susceptibility to infections in young children and immunocompromised individuals ( Sumiya et al., 1991, Garred et al., 1997, Summerfield

et al., 1997, Neth et al., 2001 and Peterslund et al., 2001). MBL deficiency or low MBL serum levels are also associated with the occurrence of autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) ( Lee et al., 2005). Circulatory levels of the otherwise lung-associated collectin surfactant protein D (SP-D) are increased upon lung injuries ( Leth-Larsen Sirolimus datasheet et al., 2003). Low serum levels of SP-D, caused by the variant allele Thr11, may increase susceptibility click here to tuberculosis ( Floros et al., 2000). Low serum levels of SP-D have also been implicated

in pathogenesis of SLE ( Hoegh et al., 2009). In order to identify the biological functions of CL-11, it is necessary to be able to measure CL-11 levels in serum and other fluids. The objectives of the present work were to develop and validate an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for measuring human CL-11 in various samples, and to determine CL-11 levels in normal serum and plasma. Unless otherwise stated, reagents were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Vallensbaek, Denmark). The following buffers were used: TBS: (10 mM Tris and 145 mM NaCl, pH 7.4), coating buffer (15 mM Na2CO3, 35 mM NaHCO3, pH 9.6),

washing buffer for ELISA (TBS, fantofarone 5 mM EDTA, 0.05% Emulfogen, pH 7.4), substrate buffer (35 mM citric acid, 67 mM Na2HPO4, 0.012% H2O2, pH 5.0), washing buffer for Western blotting (TBS, 5 mM EDTA, 0.1% Emulfogen, 5% non-fat dried milk, 0.1% w/v BSA, pH 7.4). The expression and purification of recombinant CL-11 were performed as previously described (Hansen et al., 2010). Briefly, full-length untagged human CL-11 was expressed in DG44 CHO cells using the bicistronic pOptiVEC TOPO vector (Invitrogen, Taastrup, Denmark). Recombinant CL-11 was purified from the culture supernatant using mannose-Sepharose affinity purification. The concentration of CL-11 was measured by quantitative amino acid analysis of 7 different fractions of purified CL-1 from three different rounds of purification. The derived average conversion factor of the 7 analyses was used throughout the study. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were essentially produced by the principles described by Kohler and Milstein (Kohler and Milstein, 1975) in outbred NMRI mice with modifications previously described (Hansen et al., 2008). Briefly, purified recombinant CL-11 was used as the antigen. Positive clones were identified by ELISA using microtiter plates coated with CL-11. Cells from the positive wells were cloned at least four times by limiting dilution.

Due to the hepatocarcinogenic property of both AFB1 and ST, the human hepatoma HepG2 cell was used as the cell model to investigate their co-proapoptotic activity and related mechanisms, and it is expected that the basic toxicity property

and mechanism obtained from a model system might facilitate developing interventive measures to reduce their vivo toxicity to the body. Human hepatoma HepG2 cells lines were obtained EPZ-6438 cell line from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Beijing, China). AFB1(purity ≥98%), ST (purity ≥98%), DMSO, Sulforhodamine B (SRB), TCA, H33258, DCFH-DA, DCF, rhodamine 123, JC-1 dye, and calf thymus DNA were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Shanghai, China). Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum (FBS), trypsin, HBSS, and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) were purchased from Gibco Life Technologies (Shanghai, China). ATP assay kit, Annexin V-FITC cell apoptosis assay kit, and mitochondria membrane potential assay kit were obtained from Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology (Shanghai, China). DAB was purchased from Genetech Inc (Shanghai, China). All the antibodies for Caspase-3, p53, Bax and Bcl-2 were from Germany AbioB, LTM.(Shanghai, China). HepG2 cells were cultured in DMEM medium containing FBS (10%), penicillin (100 units/ml) and streptomycin (100 μg/mL) under a Selleck Ponatinib humidified incubator

with CO2 (5%) and air (95%) at 37 °C. Every 5–7 days, the adherent cells were suspended after treatment with 1 mL of 0.25% trypsin-EDTA solution for 2-3 min at 37 °C, and then were subcultured at a 1:3 split ratio. The culture medium was changed every 2 days. Stocks of cells were routinely frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen. Cells with 15-20 passages were used for experiments to ensure cell line stability. The cell viability was measured by a sulforhodamine B colorimetric assay (SRB) [22]. Briefly, log phase HepG2 cells (200 μL) were seeded at a density of 3 × 104 cells/mL in a 96-well plate. After incubation for 24 h, culture medium

containing AFB1 or ST (dissolved in DMSO) was used to treat the cells for 24 or 48 h. Then, the cells were fixed by adding 100 μL cold (4 °C) trichloroacetic acid (TCA) solution (10% w/v) and incubated Bacterial neuraminidase at 4 °C for 1 h, and then gently washed with deionized water 4-5 times. After the plate was air-dried, 100 μL SRB reagent (4 g/L) was added and incubated at room temperature for 30 min, then the plate was washed with 1% acetic acid 4-5 times and air-dried. The OD reading at 490 nm was carried out by adding 200 μL 10 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4) to each well. Cell growth inhibition rate in percentage was calculated by comparing with the control sample (without AFB1 and ST treatment). HepG2 cells were seeded at a density of 5 × 104 cells/mL in a 96-well plate.

” One goal of the current study was to develop a more objective definition of ambiguity in perceptual processing. Definitions of perceptual ambiguity have been offered in the literature in other contexts. In fact, Olivers and Meeter are not the first to develop an ‘ambiguity resolution hypothesis’; Luck et al. (1997a) also used this name for a model of visual attention. According to Luck et al., ambiguity

occurs when visual objects share a neural receptive field (RF). This is based on the observation that visual neurons are preferentially selective for stimuli that fall in their RFs. At low-level visual areas RFs are small and the information encoded by any given neuron is quite simple. High-level visual areas consolidate information such that the encoded information becomes more complex, and RFs associated with these higher-level neurons become correspondingly larger learn more (Desimone and Ungerleider, 1989). This eventually creates

a problem: stimuli come to share receptive fields and cellular output can no longer be attributed to discrete stimuli. Luck et al. propose that the core responsibility of visual attention is the resolution of this problem, and that this takes place through the suppression of 3-MA distractor representations. This makes Luck et al.’s ambiguity resolution hypothesis similar in nature to other competition-based theories of attention like the biased competition model of Desimone and Duncan (1995) and the spatial tuning model of Tsotsos et al. (1995). A central premise of the Luck et al., 1997a and Luck et al., 1997b hypothesis

is that ambiguity resolution can be indexed in the N2pc component of the visual event-related potential (ERP). The N2pc is a lateralized component that is evident as an increased negativity in the ERP elicited over visual cortex contralateral to an attended item (Luck and Hillyard, 1994a and Luck and Hillyard, 1994b). Early work suggested that the N2pc reflects distractor suppression, for example Astemizole showing that the component is absent when visual search displays do not contain distractor stimuli or when distractors cannot be suppressed because they contain relevant information or somehow define the target (Luck and Hillyard, 1994b). There also appears to be a close correspondence between the N2pc and electrophysiological evidence of attentional suppression in monkey visual cortex: both become evident at approximately 175 ms post-stimulus and are more pronounced for difficult discrimination tasks and when distractors are near the target rather than far away (Luck et al., 1997a and Luck et al., 1997b). Other results have been difficult to reconcile with the distractor suppression hypothesis.

Three hundred and fifty children aged from 9 months to 3 years from central, eastern and western regions of Ukraine were involved in the cross-sectional study. Inclusion criteria were: • Age from 9 to 36 months. Exclusion criteria were: • The need to follow a special elimination diet for significant food allergies, metabolic disorders (including hereditary diseases). Main study outcomes • Prevalence Epacadostat purchase of normal, high and low consumption of basic macro- and micronutrients. During the first visit basic child’s data were collected, health status was assessed by a physician and parents were given

a food diary and a food questionnaire for self-completion. The parents were asked to fill in the diary for 3 days (2 regular week days and 1 day – during weekend) and the questionnaire of eating behavior before the second visit. At the second visit (in 8–10 days after the first one) a doctor checked the filled food diary and eating behavior questionnaire (the

presence of a child was not required). At the final, third visit Ruxolitinib (in 4–5 weeks) the parents were informed about the results of the data analysis and were given advice on the nutrition of their child. Special attention was paid to the presence of infectious and allergic diseases on the basis of physical examination and medical history data of a child. Data from the diaries and questionnaires were analyzed with DietPlan 6 software (Forestfield Software Ltd., UK). The software allowed calculating the daily consumption of all major nutrients, taking into account age, sex, physical activity and other characteristics of the child as well as the reference values of caloric and nutrient intake and foods recommended by the Committee of Medical Aspects of Food Policy (1991) and adapted to the standards of Ukraine. The following Teicoplanin indicators

were calculated and included into analysis: daily caloric intake, the amount of consumed protein, fat, carbohydrates, macronutrients (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chloride and magnesium), essential micronutrients (iron, zinc, iodine, fluorine, copper, selenium, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt and manganese) and vitamins. The social status of children was not taken into account. From 105 children, involved in the laboratory part of the study, blood was taken to determine ferritin, erythrocytes, hemoglobin and hematocrit levels. Standard methods of descriptive, categorical and correlation (nonparametric Spearman, Kendall Tau and Gamma coefficients) analyses were used with the calculation of 95% confidence intervals (CIs) as appropriate. If normally distributed continuous data are presented as average ± standard deviation (SD), if not – as median [minimum–maximum]. The statistical analysis was performed with Statistica 8 software (StatSoft Inc., 2008; USA).

However, cooperative state–federal relationships were established to facilitate data sharing and formal federal staff participation in Initiative regional processes. For example, federal agency staff served on the SAT learn more and RSG for each of the four study

regions. The Initiative focused on one step in implementing the MLPA: planning the redesign of MPAs through four regional planning processes, which involved identifying “plausible” alternative MPA proposals that the Commission could designate through regulation ( Table 2). Full implementation requires much more, including (a) Commission action to designate MPAs in regulation, (b) many management steps required to communicate, selleck inhibitor educate and enforce the adopted regulations, (c) changed behaviors of private and public parties whose actions are relevant to effective implementation of the adopted regulations, (d) monitoring and evaluating progress in meeting the objectives of the Act, (e) adapting implementation in response to the monitoring and evaluation, and possibly (f) new formal policy making including adoption of new regulations, creating, modifying or terminating MPAs under existing law or new statutes. The redesign of MPAs in open

coast ocean waters is complete in California, but implementation of the management, monitoring and evaluation steps are only beginning. The success of public policy implementation should be measured by achievement of explicit legal objectives (Mazmanian and Sabatier, 1989). In the case of MLPA, the primary legal objective is the establishment of an “improved” statewide network of MPAs designed to achieve specific goals (Table 1). Mazmanian and Sabatier (1989)

argue that successful implementation mostly depends on (1) tractability of the problem to be addressed, (2) features of the underlying legal authority and (3) several non-statutory variables, including political salience, availability of technology to assist with implementation, public support, attitudes and resources of constituency groups, support from those with formal authority (“sovereigns” in their terminology), and commitment and leadership aminophylline skill of implementing officials. The first two factors are generally discussed as “enabling conditions” elsewhere (Fox et al., 2013a). The legislation enacted to improve management of California marine resources relevant to the legal authority to create MPAs was identified above and features of the MLPA are further analyzed below. Political salience, availability of facilitating technology, public support, attitudes and resources of constituency groups are discussed in other papers (Fox et al., 2013b and Fox et al., 2013c; Sayce et al., 2013; Merrifield et al., 2013; White et al., 2013).

In contrast to that of starch, the rate of digestion of glycogen by the midgut homogenate was nearly constant over time ( Fig. 7(b). This result is likely a consequence of the higher number of branches composed of α-1,6 glucose residues in the glycogen molecule. An effective digestion of glycogen probably requires the action of a debranching enzyme to hydrolyze the α-1,6-glycosidic linkage at the branch point and release of a linear α-1,4 glucose polymer that could then be hydrolyzed by the α-amylase. A glycogenolytic

system like this was proposed for the bacteria Bacillus subtilis ( Shim et al., 2009). Lumacaftor To search for an enzyme capable of hydrolyzing the α-1,6 linkages present in glycogen, we performed an assay using isomaltose (Glu-α-1,6-Glu) as a substrate at pH 6.5. According to our results, the L. longipalpis larvae were ineffective at hydrolyzing this disaccharide or dextran molecules, a glucose polymer formed by glycosidic α-1,6 linkages with ramifications of the α-1,3-type linkages.

An efficient debranching activity could be detectable only using substrates containing α-1,6-glycosidic residues bound to linear α-1,4 glucose polymers. In nature, this debranching activity may be performed by debranching enzymes such as those produced by some bacteria or plants ( Zhu et al., 1998, Delatte et al., 2006, EPZ015666 supplier Shim et al., 2009 and Bijttebier et al., 2010). How L. longipalpis larvae address branched substrates is a problem to be solved in the future. The final digestion of the oligosaccharides generated by the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen molecules can be attributed to an α-glucosidase. This enzyme predominates in the posterior midgut and is associated with the midgut wall (Fig. 8). More specifically, this enzyme is bound to the microvilli of the enterocytes. From this site, the α-glucosidase can digest products of starch hydrolysis such as maltose, maltotriose and other oligosaccharides with high molecular masses. Adhesion to the midgut wall maintains the enzyme in the appropriate anatomical site despite the counter-flow mechanism, presumably present in most insects, which could be responsible for the Telomerase reutilization of the soluble digestive enzymes such as the α-amylase

and others (Terra and Ferreira, 1994 and Fazito do Vale et al., 2007). The posterior midgut is the correct site for α-glucolytic activity because this enzyme requires a neutral or acidic environment (Fig. 9). In addition, starch and other polysaccharides must first be pre-digested in the anterior midgut to generate the substrates to be digested by the α-glucosidase in the posterior midgut. Recently, Moraes et al. (2012) reported the presence of two peaks of α-glucosidase activity in L. longipalpis larval midgut by using gel filtration chromatography. One of these peaks was eluted as an enzyme of 66 kDa, a molecular mass similar of that found in the present work ( Fig. 4(b). The authors also reported the presence of a peak corresponding to a high molecular mass (>200 kDa).

, 2013 and Cuo et al., 2013a). Valuable

as they are, these studies also show that there is still a lot to improve in the simulation of the cryospheric processes such as the thaw and freeze cycles of snow, frozen soil and glacier, glacier volume and movement, extent and depth of snow, frozen soil and glacier, and in the incorporation of the cryospheric processes into physically based hydrological or land surface models that account for both energy and water balances on the TP. The TP has an abundance of permafrost, glacier, ice and snow. Permafrost occupies about 75% of the entire area (Cheng and Jin, 2013) while glacial coverage equals to 49,873.44 km2 in area (Yao and Yao, 2010). Snow covers the majority of the land during winter (Immerzeel this website et al., 2009). All cryospheric components

buy Vorinostat contribute to streamflow in one way or another and understanding their roles and impacts of their changes is important for understanding the hydrological processes and hydrological changes as a whole. Yang et al. (1993), Zhang et al. (2003), Tian et al. (2009) and Niu et al. (2010) studied the relationship between frozen soil and streamflow in small-scale basins on the TP. Their findings include (a) frozen soil resulted in a reduction in the lag time between precipitation and peak flow, (b) frozen soil depth and streamflow exhibited positive correlation, and (c) permafrost degradation resulted in a slowdown of peak flow recession. Glacier and snow are important water resources whose contributions to streamflow differ at temporospatial scales. Glacier

acts on longer time scales such as years or decades while snow contribution tends to be seasonal and shorter in duration. Glacier contribution to streamflow over decades has been examined for various river basins on the TP using mostly degree-day modeling approaches Ureohydrolase (Liu, 1999, Kang et al., 2000, Liu et al., 2009, Gao et al., 2010b, Immerzeel et al., 2010, Zhang et al., 2012a and Zhang et al., 2013b) and other empirical relationships (e.g. Xie et al., 2006b), but large gaps exist among these studies concerning the quantitative contribution of glaciers and a consensus has not been reached. It is generally accepted that glacier contribution is important mainly for headwaters or basins for which glacier coverage is relatively large. Ye et al. (1999) stated that when glacier coverage is greater than 5%, glacier contribution to streamflow starts to show up in a small basin in Xinjiang, China. However, it is unclear whether or not the criterion of 5% glacial coverage is also applicable for large river basins on the TP. Snow contribution to streamflow is also a topic of debate for this region. Cuo et al. (2013a) showed that snow contribution is seasonal and is important in mid-spring when up to 40% of the seasonal streamflow comes from snow melt in YLR. Immerzeel et al., 2009 and Immerzeel et al.

Die Bildung dieser hochreaktiven Spezies kann oxidativen Stress verursachen, der die Schädigung von Lipiden, Proteinen und DNA sowie weitere ATP-Depletion verursacht und schließlich zum Zelltod führt. Diese pathophysiologischen Mechanismen, wie z. B. Exzitotoxizität, oxidativer Stress, Proteinaggregation, Funktionsstörungen der Mitochondrien und Veränderungen

Obeticholic Acid cost der Metallhomöostase sind denen auffallend ähnlich, die den meisten häufig auftretenden neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen wie PS, AK und HK zugrunde liegen. Manganismus wurde von Couper im Jahr 1837 zum ersten Mal an fünf Patienten beschrieben [110], die in einer Erzbrechanlage arbeiteten und sich mit Muskelschwäche, gebeugter Haltung, leiser Sprache, Gliederzittern und Speichelfluss vorstellten (siehe „Essenzialität und Toxizität von Mn”) [111]. Die psychischen Symptome des Manganismus treten früh während der Vergiftung auf und umfassen Halluzinationen, Psychosen und eine Vielzahl von Verhaltensstörungen. Später entwickeln sich motorische Defizite, die vom extrapyramidalen System ausgehen: Gangstörungen mit der Neigung, nach rückwärts zu fallen, Gleichgewichtsstörungen,

Bradykinesie, Rigor, Mikrographie, maskenartiger Gesichtsausdruck und Sprachstörungen [111]. Anders als beim PS, das mit Ruhetremor einhergeht, ist Manganismus mit kinetischem Tremor verbunden, der jedoch eher selten ist, falls überhaupt Tremor auftritt. Exposition gegenüber hohen Mn-Mengen kann auch zu Dystonie führen, die

durch eine plantare Flexion des Fußes und learn more „Steppergang” sowie Grimassieren gekennzeichnet ist. Bemerkenswerterweise schreiten die Symptome einer Mn-Intoxikation, sobald sie sich eingestellt haben, in der Regel fort und werden irreversibel, was eine dauerhafte Schädigung neuraler Strukturen anzeigt. Obwohl Manganismus im Allgemeinen als Schädigung der Basalganglien beschrieben wird, beeinträchtigt er auch andere Regionen des ZNS, wie z. B. den Cortex und den Hypothalamus [112]. Beim Menschen ist Manganismus auf morphologischer Ebene gekennzeichnet durch den Verlust von Neuronen und reaktive Gliose im Globus pallidus und der Substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr), jedoch ohne Lewy-Körperchen, die intraneuronalen Proteinaggregate, die das PS charakterisieren Dipeptidyl peptidase [112]. Es kann auch zu einer Schädigung des Striatum (Nucleus caudatus und Putamen) und des subthalamischen Nucleus kommen, obwohl dies selten beschrieben wird, wohingegen eine Schädigung der Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) mit geringerer Wahrscheinlichkeit auftritt [113]. Im Gegensatz dazu ist das idiopathische PS vor allem durch den Verlust von Neuronen in der SNpc gekennzeichnet [114]. In einem kürzlich erschienenen Editorial [116] wurde vorgeschlagen, Radiotracer-Bildgebungsverfahren einzusetzen, um den Zustand des dopaminergen Systems bei asymptomatischen Arbeitern zu untersuchen, die Mn ausgesetzt waren.

Querying the libraries’ role opens other questions, such as those around access to the information holdings. How much of the marine information, beyond the professional, peer-reviewed

commercial journals and books (i.e., monographs), is digitized? This question involves an understanding of the prevalence and importance of grey literature, defined as “that which is produced at all levels of government, academics, business and industry in print click here and electronic formats, but which is not controlled by commercial publishers. In general, grey literature publications are non-conventional, fugitive and sometimes ephemeral publications”, and include a wide range Nutlin-3a nmr of materials (Grey Literature Network Service, 1999). It is an important genre of information (EIUI, 2013). Are the massive grey literature holdings of most marine libraries largely digitized or being digitized? Is archival material (e.g., older data records and reports, books and proceedings from symposia, annual reports, cruise and expedition reports, photographs, personal journals) of much value in our networked world, where instant access to new information is the new gold standard, and the value of older and historical materials is

often under-appreciated? Are marine science libraries simply no longer required in our brave new digital world? Lately, the focus of the debate in Canada has been largely on the network of science libraries run by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans or DFO (Munro, 2013 and Nikiforuk, 2014; www.saveoceanscience.ca).

triclocarban It has been galvanized by pictures of dumpsters full of discarded data reports and books, images of people hauling away their treasured finds, and descriptions of chaotic sorting and culling of library collections. The DFO is the lead department for ocean research, ocean management, and management of all freshwater and marine fisheries, with a mandate under the Fisheries Act, the Oceans Act, the Species at Risk Act and others. All of these mandates are information intensive. The closure of seven of eleven of its libraries has purportedly led to savings of slightly under half a million dollars per year and seven or eight staff positions. However, the costs to the remaining two “core” libraries of servicing researchers and students across the country or from other countries have not been taken into account. As well, the once world renowned network of marine and aquatic libraries under their care has been lost. From St. John’s, Newfoundland, to St.