Our results showed that primary gastric carcinoma tissue elevated the expression of VEGF-C. However, there was no significant association between check details the expression rate of BIBF 1120 in vitro VEGF-C and clinicopathologic parameters. Probably, these discrepancies were influenced by intratumoral heterogeneity and the population size. But, in this study, there was a positive correlation between the expression of VEGF-C and peritumoral LVD. The overexpression of COX-2 has been detected in several types of human cancer including colon, lung, stomach, pancreas

and breast cancer and is usually associated with poor prognostic outcome. Cox-2 mRNA and protein were first found to be expressed in human gastric carcinoma by Ristimaki et al. in 1997 [47].

Previous studies show conflicting prognostic significance of COX-2 in gastric carcinoma. Johanna et al. found that there was a significant association between COX-2 expression and lymph node metastasis and invasive depth, and high COX-2 is an independent prognostic factor in gastric cancer [48]. However, contrary to the above results, some studies have shown that there was no association between COX-2 expression and prognosis [49]. Lim also found that Selleckchem Pritelivir there was no correlation between clinicopathological characteristics of gastric cancer patients and intensity of COX-2 protein expression [50]. In our study, we also found that COX-2 protein was expressed in cases of gastric carcinoma, but we did not find a significant association between COX-2 expression and clinicopathological characteristics. In this study, from univariate and multivariate analyses, we found a significant

association between COX-2 expression and a reduced survival of patients with gastric cancer. These discrepancies are likely influenced by differences in study size, COX-2 detection methods, and criteria for COX-2 overexpression. These findings warrant Megestrol Acetate larger studies with multivariate analysis to clarify the association of COX-2 with clinicopathological characteristics and poor prognosis in patients with gastric cancer. In contrast to the effect of COX-2 on angiogenesis, the effect on lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis remains poorly understood. Recent studies suggest that COX-2 may play a role in tumor lymphangiogenesis through an up-regulation of VEGF-C expression. VEGF-C is the most important lymphangiogenic factor produced by tumor and stromal cells. Su et al. [23] found that lung adenocarcinoma cell lines transfected with Cox-2 gene or exposed to prostaglandin E2 caused a significant elevation of VEGF-C mRNA and protein. The authors suggested that Cox-2 up-regulated VEGF-C by an EP1 prostaglandin receptor and human epidermal growth factor receptor HER-2/Neu-dependent pathway. In addition, immunohistochemical staining of 59 lung adenocarcinoma specimens reflected a close association between COX-2 and VEGF-C. Kyzas et al.

This population is not representative of the range of patients who are treated with GXR coadministered with a stimulant. Additionally, patients with ADHD have a higher prevalence of comorbid disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and oppositional disorder, compared with control subjects, and subjects with those disorders were excluded [21]. As this was a single-dose study, rather than a multiple-dose

study, the effects seen in the study may not be representative of those seen at steady state. Because of these limitations, the findings of this study may not be readily extrapolated to the therapeutic setting. Moreover, because of the short-term nature of the study, the implications of the results for long-term management of ADHD with a combination of GXR and MPH

are also unknown. This study was not designed to robustly Blebbistatin supplier assess the cardiovascular effects of either GXR or MPH alone or in combination. In fact, the study excluded subjects with comorbidities that might contribute to cardiac AEs and subjects with medical or psychiatric disorders. Therefore, it is important to be cautious when generalizing from the results of this study. 5 Conclusions In this short-term, open-label study of healthy adults, coadministration of GXR and MPH did not result in significant pharmacokinetic drug–drug interactions. In addition, no unique TEAEs were observed with coadministration of GXR and MPH compared with either treatment alone. Acknowledgments With great sadness, the authors wish to acknowledge the passing of our colleague, Mary Haffey, and recognize her contributions to this article. Funding and Individual Contributions This clinical Batimastat mouse research was funded by the sponsor, Shire Development LLC (Wayne, PA, USA). Under direction from the authors, Jennifer Steeber PhD [an employee of SCI Scientific

Communications & Information (SCI); Parsippany, NJ, USA] provided writing see more assistance for this publication. Editorial assistance in the form of proofreading, copy editing, and fact checking Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II was also provided by SCI. Additional editorial support was provided by Wilson Joe, PhD, of MedErgy (Yardley, PA, USA). Jonathan Rubin MD MBA, Carla White BSc CStat, Edward Johnson, Michael Kahn, and Gina D’Angelo PharmD MBA from Shire Development LLC, and Sharon Youcha MD (who was an employee at Shire Development LLC at the time of the study) also reviewed and edited the manuscript for scientific accuracy. Shire Development LLC provided funding to SCI and MedErgy for support in writing and editing this manuscript. Although the sponsor was involved in the design, collection, analysis, interpretation, and fact checking of information, the content of this manuscript, the ultimate interpretation, the accuracy of the study results, and the decision to submit it for publication in Drugs in R&D was made by the authors independently. Conflict of Interest Disclosures Benno Roesch is an employee of Advanced Biomedical Research, Inc. (Hackensack, NJ, USA).

Previous studies have shown thatSalmonellamutants lackingspaOfailed to assemble the needle complex, leading to its inability to secrete proteins and invade cells [41,42]. This suggests that the SpaO protein is essential for needle complex assembly and protein secretion critical for bacterial entry. However, its expressionin vivohas not been reported. Our findings of the differential expression of SpaO preferentially bySalmonellacolonizing the cecum but not spleen

raises the possibility that efficient expression of this protein may not be needed bySalmonellain the spleen, find more possibly because bacteria entry can be accomplished with phagocytosis by splenic macrophages. Furthermore, tissue-specific differential regulation of the expression of SpaO, a protein essential for the secretion machinery [41,42], JAK inhibitor should provide another mechanismin vivofor the regulation of the amounts of effector proteins to be secreted into the host cells. Recent studies have revealed hierarchical transport of different effectors duringSalmonellaentry and extensive ordered synergistic and antagonist relationships between these effectors following

their delivery into the host cells [5,39,40]. Thus, it is conceivable that differential expression of SpaO may dictate the amounts of needle complexes available during bacterial entry. This may result in hierarchical transport of specific effectors

and specific functional interplay (synergistic or antagonist relationships) among these proteins in the host cells, leading to specific pathological consequences in different tissues. We note that some of the protein expression results in our study may not be consistent with those from the expression of the transcripts of the SPI-1 genes that have been recently published [19,20]. The expression of SPI-1 genes is tightly controlled transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally [13]. Thus, we believe that our results of the SPI-1 protein expressionin vivomay not necessarily correlate with the previous observationsin Methane monooxygenase vitro. Furthermore, the amounts of proteins expressed from the SPI-1 genesin vivoare in a delicate balance as there are hierarchical transports of different effectors duringSalmonellaentry and extensive ordered synergistic and antagonist relationships between these effectors following their delivery into the host cells. An SCH727965 in vitro imbalance of the amounts of these factors available during infection would seriously compromise the ability of the bacteria to establish successful infection. Our results complement and further extend previous findings of the expression of these SPI-1 factors, and demonstrate the importance of examining protein expressionin vivoin the context of infection.

Another approach, a mixed-solvent strategy, exploited a low-intensity ultrasonic treatment (ultrasonic bath) for the exfoliation of MoS2, WS2, and BN in ethanol/water mixtures [15]. This method is suitable for the preparation of approximately 1%

dispersion of exfoliated PRN1371 particles. Direct exfoliation of the bulk powder materials using supercritical CO2 assisted with ultrasound also led to the single and few layers of BN, MoS2, and WS2. The effects of supercritical CO2 coupled with ultrasound played a key role in the exfoliation process [16]. Warner et al. [17] presented a relatively simple method to prepare thin few-layer sheets of h-BN with micrometer-sized dimensions using chemical exfoliation in the solvent 1,2-dichloroethane. Lin et al. [18] demonstrated that water is effective selleck chemicals in the exfoliation of layered h-BN structures with the assistance of an ultrasonic bath and leads to ‘clean’ aqueous dispersions of h-BN nanosheets without the use of surfactants. The h-BCN compounds were successfully synthesized by using hydrogen-free 1,3,5-trichlorotriazine and boron tribromide as reactants and metal sodium as reductant through a chemical reduction synthesis method at 450°C [19]. A facile approach has been developed

to prepare B and N co-doped graphene with tunable compositions simply through the thermal annealing of graphene oxide in the presence of boric acid and ammonia ABT-263 in vivo [20]. Hernandez et al. [21] gathered interesting findings that included the utilization of the method of liquid-phase exfoliation, where the surface energy of the solvent was advantageously used to exfoliate graphite. The surface energy of graphene, which is approximately 70 mJ/m2, is in the upper range of surface energies

for most solvents. That would imply that this method cannot be used for the exfoliation of find more IAGs because the surface energies of these materials have been determined to be considerably higher than that of graphene. For example, Weiss and Phillips [22] referred that the surface energies of transition metal dichalcogenides, such as MoS2 and WS2, are greater than 200 mJ/m2. Therefore, there would not be any suitable solvents, and the method of liquid-phase exfoliation could not be used for the exfoliation of IAGs. Ultrasonic power, transferred into the liquid by means of a sonotrode (ultrasonic probe, horn), is dependent on sonotrode shape, material, and the end load. An acoustic power of approximately 50 W/cm2 can be transferred into water at an ambient pressure. In a well-tuned ultrasonic system, it can be assumed that the power transfer into the liquid is more than 95% of the input power, and 3% to 4% of the losses are thermal losses of the electrical components of the generator. The maximum achieved power at ambient pressure is approximately 300 W. A further increase of the ultrasonic power can be achieved by placing the ultrasonic horn in the pressurized reactor.

Microbiology 2007, 153:71–79.CrossRefPubMed 23. Kutlin A, Kohlhoff S, Roblin P, Hammerschlag MR, Riska P: Emergence of resistance to rifampin and rifalazil in Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Chlamydia trachomatis. Antimicrob Agents see more Chemother 2005, 49:903–907.CrossRefPubMed www.selleckchem.com/products/pu-h71.html 24. Rupp J, Solbach W, Gieffers J: Variation in the mutation

frequency determining quinolone resistance in Chlamydia trachomatis serovars L2 and D. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008, 61:91–94.CrossRefPubMed 25. Shkarupeta MM, Lazarev VN, Akopian TA, Afrikanova TS, Govorun VM: Analysis of antibiotic resistance markers in Chlamydia trachomatis clinical isolates obtained after ineffective antibiotic therapy. Bull Exp Biol Med 2007, 143:713–717.CrossRefPubMed 26. Gieffers J, Rupp J, Gebert A, Solbach W, Klinger M: First-choice antibiotics at subinhibitory concentrations induce persistence of Chlamydia pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004, 48:1402–1405.CrossRefPubMed 27. Reveneau N, Crane DD, Fischer E, Caldwell HD: Bactericidal activity of first-choice antibiotics against gamma interferon-induced persistent infection of human epithelial cells by Chlamydia trachomatis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49:1787–1793.CrossRefPubMed 28. Wyrick PB, Knight ST: Pre-exposure of infected

human endometrial epithelial cells to penicillin in vitro renders Chlamydia trachomatis refractory to azithromycin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004, 54:79–85.CrossRefPubMed 29. Migliorini ARN-509 cost L, Canocchi V, Zanelli G, Valassina M, Cellesi C: Outbreak and persistence of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in an Italian family. Infez Med 2003, 11:157–160.PubMed 30. Mpiga P, Ravaoarinoro M:Chlamydia trachomatis persistence: an update. Microbiol Res 2006, 161:9–19.CrossRefPubMed 31. Davis CH, Raulston JE, Wyrick PB: Protein disulfide Amine dehydrogenase isomerase, a component of the estrogen receptor complex, is associated with Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E attached to human endometrial epithelial cells. Infect Immun

2002, 70:3413–3418.CrossRefPubMed 32. Hackstadt T, Todd WJ, Caldwell HD: Disulfide-mediated interactions of the chlamydial major outer membrane protein: role in the differentiation of chlamydiae? J Bacteriol 1985, 161:25–31.PubMed 33. Raulston JE, Davis CH, Paul TR, Hobbs JD, Wyrick PB: Surface accessibility of the 70-kilodalton Chlamydia trachomatis heat shock protein following reduction of outer membrane protein disulfide bonds. Infect Immun 2002, 70:535–543.CrossRefPubMed 34. Mannonen L, Kamping E, Penttila T, Puolakkainen M: IFN-gamma induced persistent Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in HL and Mono Mac 6 cells: characterization by real-time quantitative PCR and culture. Microb Pathog 2004, 36:41–50.CrossRefPubMed 35. Shaw EI, Dooley CA, Fischer ER, Scidmore MA, Fields KA, Hackstadt T: Three temporal classes of gene expression during the Chlamydia trachomatis developmental cycle. Mol Microbiol 2000, 37:913–925.CrossRefPubMed 36.

However, to our knowledge, this type of technique has not been applied to profiling complex microbial communities to date. Here, we tested a set of padlock probes to evaluate the potential of the method for AD process monitoring and more generally for microbial community analysis (Figure 4). In order to establish the functionality

and target selleck chemicals llc sequence specificity of the probes, we used 10 fmol of probe-specific synthetic dsDNA oligos as templates for the probe pool in ligation reactions. Signals from the subset of probes corresponding to the templates present in each pool could be clearly distinguished from signals from the rest of the probes (Additional file 4), suggesting a good target sequence specificity. However, the signal intensities of different probes varied considerably at the constant 10 Vistusertib cell line fmol template concentration, probably

because of random variability of PCR [72] and sequence bias of ligation [73, 74]. Approximately 10% of the probes were not functional despite their perfect alignment to template. Six probes were non-specific giving false positive signals, despite that they did not have good alignment to any of the templates. To estimate the amount of detectable template, we tested template pools each containing 24 templates, at four different concentrations each. The probe signal intensities correlated with concentration (Additional file 5) with the highest concentration (1 fmol/μl/template) giving the highest signals while at the lowest concentration (0.001 fmol/μl/template) practically

none of the probes produced detectable signals. Almost all of the probes had 7-Cl-O-Nec1 in vivo consistently lower signals with lower concentrations and the majority of probes were still detectable at 0.01 fmol/μl/template concentration, suggesting that the method may be used for semiquantitative assaying over at least three orders of magnitude. Figure 4 Comparison of sequencing, microarray and qPCR. Performance of probe A123 on Beta adrenergic receptor kinase samples M1, M2, M3 and M4. (a) Relative abundance of sequencing reads corresponding to microarray probe A123 bacterial target groups, (b) microarray signal intensities and (c) TaqMan assay using the same probe sequence. Microarray analysis of the AD samples To evaluate the microarray’s capability in analysing the AD samples, we performed ligation reactions using about 200 ng of non-amplified sample DNA as template for the probe pool. The microarray signals from the mesophilic samples M1 and M2 and the thermophilic samples M3 and M4 grouped separately and along the gradients of physical and chemical parameters in a similar way as with sequencing data (Figure 5) in redundancy analysis [16]. This suggests that our microarray had the ability to monitor changes in the microbial community structure in response to conditions of the digestor, an important aspect of in-process monitoring of AD status.

Following incubation for 3 h at 37°C, samples were collected from the basal compartment and absorbance at 485 nm was measured. Hemolysis Hemolysis of sheep erythrocytes was measured as previously described [20]. In brief, C. concisus cells cultured in Columbia broth as described above were centrifuged (8000 × g, 3 min) and cell pellets were washed with sterile MM-102 in vivo PBS, suspended in PBS to 1 × 109 CFU/ml, and then serially diluted 2-fold in PBS. Equal volumes (100 μl) of cell suspension and sheep erythrocytes (2% vol/vol in PBS) were mixed in a U-bottom 96-well plate. The plate was then incubated at 37°C under microaerobic conditions for 18

h. A comparative negative control (without bacteria) was also incubated under similar conditions. selleck products A positive control for total hemolysis (100%) was performed by replacing the same volume of bacterial cell suspension with distilled water. After incubation, the tubes were centrifuged at 1000 × g for 5 min, and the OD490 of the supernatants for the 1/3 dilution were measured. Data were reported as the percent total hemolysis of sheep erythrocytes (compared to the positive control). DNA fragmentation, cytotoxicity, and metabolic activity

T84 monolayers were grown in 24-well plates and inoculated as described above. Control monolayers were also treated with camptothecin (4 μM), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, 0.5 mM), or sterile broth. Following incubation, DNA fragmentation was measured using a Cellular DNA Fragmentation ELISA kit (Roche Applied Science, Laval, QC) according to the INCB024360 in vitro manufacturer’s protocol. Lactate dehydrogenase released into the surrounding tissue culture was measured using a Cytotoxicity Detection kit (Roche) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Metabolic activity (i.e. MTT assay) was measured using

a Cell Proliferation Kit I (Roche) according to the manufacturer’s protocol, except that gentamicin (500 μg/ml) was incorporated into the MTT solution. Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase Interleukin-8 real-time quantitative PCR T84 monolayers were grown in six-well plates and inoculated with C. concisus and C. jejuni as described above. In addition, monolayers were inoculated at an MOI of 100 with E. coli HB101. Following incubation, the culture medium was removed and replaced with RNAlater (3 ml/well; Qiagen), and cells were stored at 4°C until processed for RNA extraction (< 1 week). Total RNA was isolated using the RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen), according to the manufacturer’s protocol. RNA was reverse transcribed using a QuantiTect reverse transcription kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. PCR was conducted using an Mx3005P Stratagene thermocycler (Stratagene, Cedar Creek, TX). All PCR reactions were carried out in 20 μl volumes and contained 1X QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Qiagen), forward and reversed primers (0.5 μM each; Table 5) and 2 μL of RT reaction.

Although distribution modeling approaches are available, their applicability for monographic data and for presence-only data in general is often compromised by data scarcity, poor data quality and lack of knowledge of the environmental correlates of species. Our method is precisely targeted at such data and can also be adjusted to accommodate different taxonomical groups by changing the weighting of

interpolation distances for species range generation. Using this new method, we identified and validated centers of Neotropical angiosperm species richness and compared VX770 them to the current protection https://www.selleckchem.com/products/kpt-8602.html status and human population density. In addition, we identified areas where insufficient data do not allow for reliable estimates of distribution patterns. This is due to the sensitivity of the distribution

patterns of the narrow endemic species towards sampling effort. In particular, our method might underestimate the numbers and the ranges of narrow endemic species in poorly collected areas. Our maps also indicate areas for further sampling activity, because the available data do not yet allow for robust estimation of species richness patterns. To permit pinpointing of species-rich areas for conservation priorities, a robust estimate of total species richness and narrow endemic species richness selleck chemicals is necessary. Therefore, future collection activity should focus on under-sampled areas and under-sampled taxa. Further taxonomic identification of both new and already collected, unidentified specimens is necessary, which requires additional training and support of expert taxonomists. New and reliable data will enable the scientific community to further clarify Neotropical angiosperm distribution and in particular endemism Astemizole patterns to improve response to conservation needs. Acknowledgements This study was inspired by the late Wilfried Morawetz, who had the vision of constructing comprehensive species richness maps long before GIS desktops became a standard. Ingo Fetzer, Julio Schneider and two anonymous reviewers greatly helped improve the grammar and readability of the manuscript. CFD acknowledges support by the Helmholtz

Association (VH-NG-247). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Appendices Appendix 1 Literature consulted for compilation of the Neotropical angiosperm species distribution database. Anderson C (1982) A monograph of the genus Peixotoa (Malpighiaceae). Contr Univ Michigan Herb 15:1–92 Anderson WR (1982) Notes on Neotropical Malpighiaceae—I. Contr Univ Michigan Herb 15:93–136 Andersson L (1977) The genus Ischnosiphon (Marantaceae). Opera Bot 43:1–114 Andersson L (1985) Revision of Heliconia subgen. Stenochlamys (Musaceae-Heliconioideae).

J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2012, 31:73.PubMedCrossRef”
“Introduction Glioma is the first commonly diagnosed types of intracranial tumors, accounting for more than 50% among all primary brain selleck chemical tumors [1]. Gliomas can be classified as astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, or tumors with morphological features of both two types of tumors above. According to their degrees of malignancy, gliomas are classified from graded I to IV. Glioblastoma, one subtype of aggressive gliomas, is the most common and lethal brain tumor, with widespread invasion in brain, poor differentiation, destruction of normal brain tissue, and resistance to traditional therapeutic approaches [1–3]. www.selleckchem.com/products/SB-202190.html Current

options for treatment of glioblastoma include surgical resection of the primary tumor to reduce the tumor size, followed by radiotherapy and adjuvant chemotherapy with temozolomide (TMZ) [4]. However, even with successful surgical resection and subsequent radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the prognosis remains poor, with a median survival of 12–15 months [5]. High tumor recurrence rate and mortality of patients is due to incomplete removal of primary Ro 61-8048 clinical trial tumors after surgery and resistance to chemotherapy. The infiltrating characteristics of glioblastoma make complete removal of primary tumor virtually

impossible, and even cause normal brain tissue damage. Therefore, the limitation of current options for glioblastoma treatment suggests that it is urgently required to study mechanism of chemoresistance regulation of this cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of 22-nucleotide small non-coding RNAs, can regulate gene expression at post-transcriptional level. MiRNAs are evolutionarily conserved and negatively regulate gene expression. They

are transcribed by RNA polymerase II, spliced, and then poly-adenylated to generate primitive miRNAs (pri-miRNAs) [6]. The stem-loop structure of pri-miRNAs can be recognized and cleaved by the nuclear RNase III Drosha to generate hairpin precursor miRNAs (pre-miRNAs). Pre-miRNAs are rapidly exported to the cytoplasm by exportin-5, excised by the cytoplasmic RNase III Dicer to generate a 22-nucleotide miRNA duplex: one Exoribonuclease strand is a mature miRNA, whereas the other strand (miRNA*) is normally unstable and degraded. The mature miRNAs can suppress target gene expression by interaction with complementary sequences in the 3′-untranslated regions (3′-UTRs) of target mRNAs and trigger translation blockade or mRNA degradation depending on whether it is completely or partially matched with the target genes [7]. Multiple studies have shown that miRNAs are deregulated in various types of human cancers [8], including glioblastoma [9–11], breast cancer [12], lung cancer [13], colon cancer [14], and ovarian cancer [15]. MiRNAs may function as oncogenes or tumor suppressors, and also involve in chemoresistance [15, 16].

Rhizobium leguminosarum was grown in the rhizospheres of its host-legume pea and two other non-host plants, alfalfa and sugar-beet. Although numerous sugar and putative complex carbohydrate transport systems are induced in the rhizosphere, they are less important carbon sources than organic acids. A common core of rhizosphere-induced see more genes was identified [15]. So far, studies on the impact of root exudates on PGPR, have been conducted with Gram-negative bacteria, mainly Azospirillum and Pseudomonas spp. [16, 17]. Related

studies performed with Gram-positive PGPR are still missing. Owing to differences in lifestyle and physiology, Gram-positive and Gram-negative rhizobacteria may use distinct mechanisms when interacting with plants. Due to their ability to produce durable endo-spores, bacilli are now preferred in manufacturing biofertilizer formulations [18], however, their successful application is still hampered by a lack of knowledge about factors determining interactions between plants and those bacteria, especially root colonization is far from being completely understood. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB42 is a plant root-colonizing Gram-positive PGPR. A series of studies has elucidated several aspects of this rhizobacterium, particularly the molecular basis of its plant

growth-promoting activity, which is mainly based on Selleck Palbociclib the production of secondary metabolites Anidulafungin (LY303366) suppressing competitive microbial pathogens occurring in the plant rhizosphere, the secretion of the plant growth hormone auxin, and the synthesis of volatiles stimulating plant growth and induced systemic resistance (ISR) [19–21]. In the case of Gram-positive PGPR, however, it is still not clear how they maneuver their gene expression when exposed to plant-derived compounds. To address this question, the commercially established FZB42 wild

type strain from Bacillus amyloliqufaciens was YH25448 manufacturer tested in this study for its transcriptomic responses to maize root exudates using a two-color DNA microarray system. Results and discussion Composition of maize root exudates Maize root exudates were collected from axenic hydroponic cultures and analysed by HPLC for organic acids, amino acids, and oligosaccharides, which have been previously reported to be among the major ingredients in root exudates [8, 22–24]. Among the compounds detected, in particular organic acids such as malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid and trans-aconitic acid, were present at highest concentrations (Figure 1). Corroborating an earlier report [25], we found that lactic acid was a main constituent of maize root exudates. A variety of amino acids was also detected. Glucose and melibiose were the most prominent sugars occurring in root exudates. According to this analysis, most low-molecular weight organic carbon appeared to be present in the form of organic acids. Figure 1 Composition and concentration of the maize root exudates.