Supplementary analysis revealed that being disciplined by a father figure who was not the biological father more than doubled the odds of becoming a bully (OR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.25-3.91; p = 0.009), but no difference was found for non-biological mothers (OR: 1.04; 95% CI:0.46-2.35; p > 0.999). Inductive discipline by either mother or father was not significantly associated with bullying behavior. However, the mothers’ third quartile of frequency of inductive discipline did show a significant Adriamycin molecular weight association (Table 3). An association was observed between the higher frequencies of power-assertive and

punitive discipline and bullying perpetration in children and adolescents. All maternal power-assertive and punitive disciplines were overall statistically associated with bullying behavior by their children, as well as most of the paternal of power-assertive and punitive discipline. The inductive discipline used by both parents was not overall statistically associated with the outcome. In this sample, females had committed physical, verbal, and indirect forms of bullying as much as males. This finding differs from another Southern-Brazilian sample, where males were more than twice as likely to be aggressors.18 Psychological

aggression was the most frequent child disciplinary practice and it showed learn more the highest association with bullying behavior. In adolescence, the use of corporal punishment usually decreases,15 since they

become too old to be spanked. Conversely, it is also a period when parent-child conflicts increase,19 causing the parents’ use of psychological aggression, rather than physical, to be more likely. Similarly, the nature of bullying also changes with age: while in young children both physical and verbal aggressions are common, as they age physical aggression tends to decrease while verbal and indirect forms of aggression increase.20 This may suggest a pattern of imitative behavior of the parents’ manner of dealing with conflicts. The current use of high levels of psychological aggression below does not mean that other forms of physical punishment were not used in their childhood. Although the questionnaire asked about experiencing child disciplinary practices specifically in the previous year, the actual outcome measured may be somewhat associated with previous experiences. The use of mild forms of corporal punishment only was associated with bullying behavior. Surprisingly, the use of harsh corporal punishment only by the mother, but not by the father, was statistically associated with bullying. It could be hypothesized that this may be due to a high number of divorced parents (n = 140, 56.7%).