Potential for coordinated regulation of motility and virulence gene expression Given the data presented in the current study, the concurrent lack of flagella and reduced toxin secretion in the flhA mutant Proteasome function is more consistent with a hypothesis of coordinated

regulation of motility and virulence genes, rather than FEA-dependent toxin secretion. This is also supported by the previously observed two-fold reduction in transcription of the genes encoding Hbl in the flhA mutant [11]. Coordinated regulation of motility and virulence genes has been demonstrated in several pathogenic bacteria (for reviews see e.g. [9, 42–44]). While diarrhoea due to B. cereus infection presumably occur through destruction of epithelial cells by enterotoxins produced in the small intestine [45, 46], the role of motility, if any, in B. cereus infection has not been investigated. Nevertheless, several studies suggest that a connection exists between expression of motility and virulence genes also in B. cereus and B. thuringiensis: First, an avirulent and non-flagellated B. thuringiensis mutant (Bt1302) showed greatly reduced phospholipase and haemolytic activity [47]. A spontaneous

suppressor mutation was able to reverse these phenotypes, Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase and although motility was only partially restored, this indicated that these unidentified mutations affected a regulatory pathway shared between genes encoding Milciclib chemical structure flagellin, phospholipases, and haemolysins [47]. Bt1302 is not likely to be a flhA mutant, since their phenotypes differ, for example in expression of flagellin and RGFP966 datasheet growth rate at 37°C [11, 13, 47]. Second, PlcR, the transcriptional activator of B. cereus extracellular virulence factors, appears to also affect motility, as a plcR mutant showed reduced motility on agar plates

and reduced flagellin expression [10, 48]. Third, Hbl production was shown to increase during swarming migration [12, 49], a differentiated state where elongated and hyperflagellate swarm cells collectively move across solid surfaces [50]. Notably, it was shown that hbl genes were upregulated during swarming, concomitant with increased expression of flagellar genes, while the majority of other genes regulated by PlcR, including plcR, nhe, and cytK, were downregulated during swarming [49]. Interestingly, upregulation of the hbl operon concomitantly with downregulation of plcR, nhe and other PlcR-regulated genes was also observed in a deletion mutant of the two-component system yvfTU [51]. Finally, the non-flagellated B.