Phylogeographic studies using both ancient and modern DNA should eventually resolve this puzzle. If the Indochinese

and Sundaic biotas diverged from one another in refugia north and south of today’s transitions it should be possible to find genetic evidence of this history in many extant species. Population genetic models of repeated population expansion and contraction from Plio-Pleistocene refugia BTK inhibitor price lead to predictions regarding the loss of population variability and homogenization of population structure that can be tested in extant populations. Phylogeographic studies of diverse plants and animals in Amazonia and northern temperate regions (regions for which the Pleistocene refugium theory was developed) show, however, that general predictions are hard to make as some species follow habitat shifts and others do not (Hofreiter and Stewart 2009). Such differential species-specific response to the same environmental change makes it difficult but not impossible to reconstruct regional paleoecology. Nevertheless, pioneering regional phylogeographic

studies of forest and savanna associated species coupled with more and better-dated fossil data are helping resolve this biogeographic puzzle; see for example: Chaimanee (2000), Gorog et al. (2004), Harrison et al. (2006), Tougard and Montuire (2006), de Bruyn and Mather (2007), Quek et al. (2007), Earl of Cranbrook (2009), Esselstyn and Brown (2009). On-going biogeographic changes and the future buy Rucaparib evolution of small populations and communities Corlett (2009a) provides a good general introduction to the expected climate changes in Southeast Asia. Since the mid-1970s tropical rainforests have experienced a significant warming at a mean rate of 0.26°C per decade (Malhi and Wright 2005). Climatologists make the following predictions for Southeast Asia before the end of this century: a 2.4–2.7°C rise in mean annual temperature (4°C in subtropical China), a 7% increase in wet season rainfall, and a drier dry season (Christensen et al. 2007; Bickford et al. 2010). Sea levels Tideglusib are expected to

rise 1–2 m by 2150 and 2.5–5 m by 2300 (WBGU 2007; Rahmstorf et al. 2007; Woodruff and Woodruff 2008) (Fig. 3c). Unfortunately, such projections are not global end-points but rather the conditions expected when atmospheric CO2 is double its pre-industrial concentration. Temperatures and sea levels, for example, will continue to rise after this point if emissions of greenhouse gases are not reduced and if tundra methane out-gasses as expected. Most projections therefore understate the real end-point values and threats to biodiversity. In addition, there are significant uncertainties regarding the monsoon’s seasonality and intensity, the probably higher frequency of ENSO events, and fire (see Taylor 2010).