In the case of metal ions the investigator has a variety of techniques available to measure concentration. With tight binding metals, atomic absorption spectroscopy can be used to determine the metal

content of the enzyme for any metal ion. Alternatively, metal binding using unstable nuclei can be performed using one of a variety of equilibrium techniques such as equilibrium dialysis, gel permeation. ultrafiltration, etc. Proper binding studies will lead to a determination of the dissociation constant for the label and its stoichiometry per enzyme molecule or enzyme active site. In most cases the metal ion utilized is either the physiologically important cation activator to elicit catalysis. The paramagnetic center is at the activator site, which may be either at, near, or remote from the active-site. Other probes such Ion Channel Ligand Library cell line as the lanthanides (e.g. Gd III) may serve as activators in a few cases or as inactive analogs that are competitive with AZD6738 cost the physiologically relevant cation.

The Cr(III) cation which forms exchange inert ligand metal complexes can also be used as a probe. This metal has found use as a kinetic and an NMR probe by being used as a Cr(III)–nucleotide complex (Cleland and Mildvan, 1979). This complex is an analog of Mg–nucleotide or Ca–nucleotide complexes that serve as substrates. Paramagnetic probes, particularly nitroxides, Mn(II), Gd(III) and Cr(III), can have a substantial effect on the longitudinal and the transverse relaxation rates of the nuclei of the ligands that are in close proximity to the paramagnetic center. In the studies of enzyme active-sites by chemical

modification, the use of such probes may be of exceptional value. After modification of the enzyme one can first determine if the binding site for the paramagnetic probe is still intact. Equilibrium binding or EPR binding (of Mn(II)) can determine if there is any alteration in the stoichiometry or in the dissociation constant for the cation to the modified enzyme. If the cation binding sites remain intact in the enzyme, then ligand binding to the modified enzyme can be studied. The results of a proper series of NMR experiments can describe the alteration in the binding of the ligands to the modified enzyme, the structure of the learn more ligands at the binding site, and their exchange rates. This information can be compared with what is known regarding the structure and dynamics of ligand binding with the native enzyme to determine the effects of modification. Again, these studies can be performed even if the modified enzyme is totally inactive. Also, 19F can be incorporated at the γ phosphate of ATP or GTP, given a competitive inhibitor with respect to the non-fluorinated nucleotide, to measure the paramagnetic effect of the metal bound to the protein on relaxation rates of this nucleus (Monasterio and Timasheff, 1987). The measured relaxation rates can then be related to the structure of the ligand on the enzyme relative to the paramagnetic center.