In egg induced plants, we observed an increase in transcripts annotated as chitinases, glucan endo 1,3 ? glucosidases, pathogenesis third related protein, major latex protein, heat shock protein 81, patatin like protein, NPR1, and WRKY transcription factor 33. In Ulmus americana similar upregulation of chitinase and PR 1 transcripts were induced after inoculation with the fungus Ophiostoma novo ulmi at a similar time point after treatment. Almost all of the 53 upregulated transcripts reported in this study with se quence similarities to defense related proteins were also found in our much larger U. minor database. PR pro teins are well known to be involved in defense responses after herbivore attack. Our results suggest the po tential importance of de novo PR protein expression by U.

minor in response to attack by X. luteola. Transcripts detected with high expression in egg treated elms show sequence similarities to genes belonging to different PR protein families. Chiti nases play a direct role in plant defense by de grading microbial cell wall components, often coordinated with the induction of glucan endo 1,3 ? glucosidases, and seem to be a prominent feature of the inducible defense profile after pathogen attack. Our data suggest that this is also true after in sect attack in trees. Chitinases and glucan endo 1,3 ? glucosidase are also known to be induced at and near the egg laying site in A. thaliana by pierid eggs and could play a defensive role against newly hatched larvae. Chitin is an important structural component of the exoskeleton and the midgut in all insects.

Chiti nases might also be effective defenses against the egg stage even though chitin like components are not known from egg shells except in mosquitoes. But, if chiti nases were to penetrate the eggs they could prevent larvae from hatching, and might serve as a direct defense against the beetle eggs. MLP like proteins belong to the PR 10 protein family, which are induced by both biotic and abiotic stress con ditions in various plant tissues. The biological func tion of these proteins remains to be elucidated, but they very likely participate in binding of ligands, such as plant hormones and secondary metabolites. Many PR genes are regulated by WRKY transcription factors, and WRKYs are known to fine tune stress responses, includ ing defense responses. WRKY 33 initiates the posi tive regulation of JA induced defense genes and negative regulation of SA related defense genes. WRKY Dacomitinib fac tors allow binding to the W box motif, which is found in promoters of PR defense genes such as PR 10 and chitinase.