38). Due to this possible confound, years in school was included as a covariate in our performance analysis; again, this did not change our findings. Ethical approval of the study was obtained from the head of the research department at the regional hospital. All participants gave Venetoclax written consent after detailed information was provided to them. To characterize the TBI population and highlight those areas in which the patients were experiencing cognitive difficulties, a battery of neuropsychological tests were administered. As can be seen in Table 1, consistent with typical

cognitive sequelae of moderate-to-severe TBI, the TBI participants performed poorly compared with normative data on measures assessing attention and speeded processing (Trail Making Test – Part A, Reitan, 1958) and executive functioning (Trail Making Test – Part B, Reitan, 1958; the Danish version of the semantic (animals) and phonemic (s-words) fluency tasks, Mortensen, Nielsen, & Rune, 1994; perseverative errors on the modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test [mWCST], Nelson, 1976). In contrast to the above performance, the group performed within normal range on immediate and delayed verbal memory (Verbal Paired Associates [VPA] subscale of the Wechsler memory Scale-III [WMS-III], Wechsler, 1997), an attention task (digit

span) and two executive functioning tasks (Stroop, Stroop, 1935; Zoo Map Test from the Behavioural assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome battery, Wilson, Alderman, Burgess, Emslie, & Evens, 1996). Standard deviations and the ranges

of scores indicated a degree of heterogeneity in the patients’ selleck chemicals performances. Of note, severity and characteristics of cognitive impairments after TBI are known to be extremely variable (Ponsford, 1995). Our design distinguished between two different forms of mental time travel – past versus future, each of which was examined for three different time periods. Thus, a 2 (Temporal Direction: future versus past) × 3 (Temporal Distance: 1 month, 5 years and 10 years) × 2 (Group: TBI versus controls) mixed design was used. Participants generated one event in each condition making it a total of six event representations for each participant. The participants’ ability to simulate representations 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 of specific past and future events was assessed using a standard method adopted from D’Argembeau and Van der Linden (2004). The task was divided into two parts – one for recording memories for past events and the other for recording representations of future events. The order in which the past and future condition were completed was counterbalanced across participants. Prior to commencing each condition, participants were provided with detailed written instructions, presented in large writings on a printed text card. The instructions for the past and future recording were the same – except for temporal reference.