13, 39-41 In PBC, CD1d expression and the frequency of iNKT cells are

both increased in the liver of patients.18, 19 In our previous work on the dnTGF-βRII mouse model of PBC, we likewise demonstrated the importance of NKT cells for PBC initiation.20 A recent study demonstrates that murine infection with Novosphingobium aromaticivorans, a gram-negative microorganism, initiates development of autoimmune cholangitis in both C57BL/6 and a congenic NOD strain.42 This latter observation is particularly noteworthy because N. aromaticivorans has four copies of PDC-E2, all of which are remarkable homologs RXDX-106 in vitro of human PDC-E2.24, 43 Further, N. aromaticivorans also contains abundant levels of glycosphingolipids with an α-linked sugar, similar to α-GalCer,24,

44 which may be a natural ligand of iNKT cells.42 Finally, in the murine model of concanavalin A (Con-A)-induced hepatitis, iNKT cells are required and sufficient for induction of liver injury.45, 46 Although there is a multiorchestrated immune response in patients with PBC, one lesson from the murine models and these data in particular is the profound importance of innate immune responses. We suggest that loss of tolerance to PDC-E2 in humans with PBC is secondary to a genetic predisposition and environmental influences of either xenobiotic chemicals or bacterial mimics. This leads to a multilineage antimitochondrial response. This multilineage Trametinib solubility dmso loss of tolerance to PDC-E2 would be clinically insignificant were it not for the unique apotopes found on biliary cells. Further, the perpetuation of disease, and perhaps the initiation from the asymptomatic serologically positive patient, may be

dependent on activation of NKT cells. The use of α-GalCer demonstrates the ability of this model to develop hepatic fibrosis. Finally, we submit that the use of this model and the other models of murine autoimmune cholangitis are valuable tools to explore new therapeutic options for patients with PBC. We thank Dr. D. Serreze for providing the CD1d-tetramer staining reagent. “
“A number of vascular problems can affect the liver. Portal vein thrombosis is the most common vascular disorder. The prognosis and management differs based on the presence or absence of cirrhosis. Thrombosis of the hepatic veins, 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 Budd–Chiarisyndrome, is usually associated with a hypercoaguable condition and is an emergency in the acute setting. Sinusoidal obstruction syndrome occurs in the setting of cytotoxic chemotherapy and has a very poor prognosis; however, with better recognition of risk factors, the incidence has declined. The natural history, prognosis, and management of portal and hepatic vein thrombosis as well as sinusoidal obstruction syndrome are discussed. “
“Peribiliary glands (PBGs) are clusters of epithelial cells residing in the submucosal compartment of extrahepatic bile ducts (EHBDs).