11 The Ca2+ Release Unit (CRU) RyR2 is a large homotetrameric Ca2+ release channel located on the SR membrane. The RyR2 channels are composed of four pore-forming monomers, comprising a relatively small C-terminal transmembrane domain and a large N-terminal domain that protrudes into the cytosol. The cytoplasmic domain of RyR2 is stabilized by FKBP12.6 and is essential for channel closure during diastole.8,17,18 The CASQ2 is the major Ca2+ storage protein Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in the SR and is capable of binding luminal Ca2+ (40–50 Ca2+ ions/molecule) during diastole in order to prevent Ca2+ precipitation and to reduce the ionic Ca2+ concentration.19 On the luminal side, RyR2 binds junctin

and triadin, which anchor the Ca2+-buffering protein CASQ2,11 collectively forming the SR Ca2+ release unit (CRU). The CRU is responsible for SR Ca2+ release, which is triggered by increased cytosolic Ca2+ resulting from opening of the L-type channel (CICR).11 In addition, CASQ2 has been suggested to modulate the activity of RyR2 directly.20 Under adrenergic stimulation, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical β-adrenergic receptors activate a GTP-binding protein that stimulates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP, which in turn activates protein kinase A (PKA). This kinase phosphorylates RyR2 and other central Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical proteins related to

E–C coupling, such as phospholamban and the L-type Ca2+ channels, thus causing gain of function of Ca2+ cycling in cardiomyocytes in response to adrenergic activation. FKBP12.6 stabilizes RyR2 in the closed state, and the hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 by PKA causes FKBP12.6 dissociation from RyR2, thereby increasing the open probability of RyR2.21 Moreover, adrenergic stimulation also increases the activity of the SERCA Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical pump via the phosphorylation of phospholamban by PKA

which stabilizes SERCA. The mechanism Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of CPVT In-vitro studies suggested that the RyR2 and CASQ2 mutations cause the CRU to open spontaneously without being triggered by voltage-gated Ca2+ influx, thereby leading to intracellular Ca2+ overload.1,2 Increased intracellular Ca2+ can trigger early or delayed afterdepolarizations (oscillations of the membrane potential that occur during the plateau/ repolarization phase of the action potential or after its completion, respectively) that can reach the threshold potential and cause triggered activity.15 Intracellular Ca2+ overload most leads to NCX activation which selleck kinase inhibitor extrudes Ca2+ in exchange for Na+ with a stoichiometry of 1:3, thereby generating a net inward current (the so-called transient inward current, ITi).2 The transient inward current induces DADs which may reach threshold and trigger premature ventricular beats and ventricular arrhythmias (demonstrated in Figure 1) by a mechanism called triggered activity.2 Figure 1 Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR), store overload-induced Ca2+ release (SOICR), and triggered arrhythmia.