The rumen click here samples also tentatively clustered by age/weight in the unweighted UniFrac output (Figure 4a), with the youngest/lightest two grouped together (185 kg., 1-yr old;

186.36 kg, 2-yrs old), the two 3-yr old females, grouped together (244.55 and 259.55 kg), and the three oldest/heaviest males (301.36 kg, 4-yrs old; 319.09 kg, 4-yrs old; and 405.45 kg, 8-yrs old) grouped together with a male of unspecified age/weight. The age/weight clusters within the rumen in the weighted UniFrac output (Figure 4b) were not the same as with the unweighted output, nevertheless, some clusters remained (c.f. Figure 4a and 4b). Discussion The major objective of this study was to identify bacteria present in the rumen and colon content samples of the North American moose. This is the first time that the rumen and colon bacterial populations of the moose have been evaluated on a large scale (i.e. PhyloChip), with the last work CHIR-99021 published in 1986 [14]. While Dehority’s [14] results give the present study an indication of the bacterial population within the rumen of moose, the findings were limited by a sample size of one animal and the constraints of classical microbiology. Anaerobic gut microorganisms are difficult to culture, which

continues to present a major obstacle in gut microbial identification. However, genetic analysis, such as microarray and high-throughput sequencing, allow microbes to be studied before they are grown in a pure culture. One drawback of using the PhyloChip, and indeed with all methods that forego culturing, is the inability to distinguish between live and dead microbes. It also cannot distinguish between colonizing versus transient species, such as the green sulfur bacteria in the phylum Chlorobi Palmatine or green non-sulfur bacteria of Chloroflexi, both of which are photosynthetic and picked up by the moose during feeding. Careful analysis of the data is required to properly interpret the results. However, even dead and transient bacterial populations can have a profound impact on the resident

bacteria as well as the host, whether by releasing harmful components when lysed, such as Lipid A, or providing DNA which may be taken up by live cells in the rumen, as in plasmids that contain genes that confer antibiotic resistance. Is important to take a holistic view to prevent marginalizing potentially important species. Like all methods that rely on PCR amplification, PhyloChip is also subject to PCR bias. This is mediated during sample preparation by running multiple reactions per sample and minimizing the number of cycles. Rumen samples were consistently clustered separately from the colon samples by PhyloTrac and UniFrac and there were 174 OTUs that were exclusive to either the rumen or the colon; confirming that the rumen and the colon are two distinct environments.